Lao Tzu
Plato
Pythagoras
Seneca
Socrates
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Lao Tzu's Quotations: - Knowing others is intelligence; knowing yourself is true wisdom. Mastering others is strength; mastering yourself is true power - A journey of a thousand [miles] starts with the first step. - The true free living human-being is the one that achieves his dream without depending on someone |
Lao Tzu is the great wise man of Ancient China. He lived between
551-479 B.C. and the teachings he left are now called Taoism. His works
were recorded in two books at the request of the Keeper of the Pass. No
one knew where he went to after he left thes books. The two books are
together called Tao Te Ching. The first book is called Tao Ching (The
Essence of Tao) and the second one is called Te Ching (The Essence of
Te).
It’s impossible to grasp the meaning of Tao unless a person knows the
order in nature and the nature of man. The word Tao literally means Way
or Order and has a similar meaning to the term Dharma in the Indian
philosophy. Tao is the entity which structures the Cosmos, it is the
force which creates the universe and all things in it, it is the set of
natural laws which stimulate and guide the development of the myriad
things.
One of the best expressions that defines Tao is the following one:
"Tao is the capacity of things to complete their natural cycle of their
own accord."(1)
We have the capacity for self-realization but we must know what our
accord is, what our nature is.
Te is the application of Tao, the subject of Lao Tzu's second book is
what we call Virtue, the function of Tao, its manifestations in the
phenomenal world.
So great is the influence of Taoism that it’s difficult to name a single
facet of Chinese civilization that has not been touched by it in some
way: Politics, religion, science, medicine, psychology, art, music,
literature, drama, dance, design, warfare etc.
One of the major concepts of Tao is the duality of things. Nature
consists of dualities and Taoism expresses it using the Yin (- -) and
Yang(----) terms. Yin means sunless and yang sunny. Summer yang, winter
yin. South is yang, north is yin. This duality permeates all things and
there is a continuous, circular movement between these dualities. When a
thing reaches its prime and height of prosperity, at that same moment it
reaches its turning point and the beginning of its decline such as the
movement between day and night.
“Complying with Nature through Non-Action is another strong concept in
Taoism. Everything has its own potential and individual mode of
expression, and requires no interference from external sources to attain
maturation. “Non-action” means according to nature, without attempting
to increase it with the artificial.”(2)
“The middle way” is the way of “non-action” in Taoism, and this concept
can also be found on Greek and Indian (Rajas & Tamas) philosophies
Lao Tzu also emphasizes the importance of man’s natural development as
an integral part of the cosmic scheme. This development has an objective
to transform the man into a Sage which is the ideal man of Lao Tzu.
Sources:
1. Tao Te Ching, Tao Tzu, 1963 Penguin Classics.
2. Lao Tzu: Text, Notes and Comments by Ch’en Ku-Ying, 1981 Chinese
Materials Center.
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Plato's quotations: - The beginning is the most important part
of the work |
Plato was born in 427 BC in Athens, the same year that Pericles died.
He belonged to an aristocratic family. His father, Ariston died when he
was a child, and his mother Perictione remarried Pyrilampes. In his
youth, he was interested in a political career, but later he felt
disappointed on the political leaderships in Athens. Moreover, when he
was 20 he met Socrates, who became his master, and finally Plato gave up
his political ambitions. In 399 BC Socrates died, he was condemned by
the Athenian democracy and Plato decided to leave Athens and travel to
Italy, Sicily and Egypt.
In 367 BC, after Dionysius I died, Plato went to Sicily in order to
tutor Dionysius II, who was the new ruler of Syracuse. Dion, the
brother-in-law of Dionysius I, persuaded Plato to it. Dion and Archytas
of Tarentum believed that if Dionysius II was trained in science and
philosophy he would be able to prevent Carthage invading Sicily. Plato
however never had such expectation but went to Sicily nevertheless. When
Dionysius II forced Dion out of Syracuse the plan, as Plato had
expected, failed. Plato returned to Athens but later, in 361 BC, again,
he went to Syracuse hoping to be able to bring the rivals together, but
he couldn’t achieve a solution and Dion ended up attacking Syracuse.
In 387 BC, when Plato was 40, he founded the Academy in Athens, which
was the first European University. It was on land which had belonged to
a man called Academus or Hecademus, which was used for gymnastic, and
this is where the name came from. It was the first centre that offered
political and intellectual education, providing a comprehensive
curriculum, including subjects such as astronomy, biology,
mathematics, political theory, and philosophy. His main reason for
setting up the Academy was to train young people to cultivate thought to
restore the government.
Plato died in 347 BC, when he was in his 80s. He became one of the
greatest philosophers of all times making significant contributions in
philosophy, mathematics, science, art, etc. He discovered the theory of
Forms, proposing a world of ideas. His writings were in dialogues form
(dialectical style used by Socrates to persuade the truth through
questions and answers), that involve conversations or debates where
Socrates usually was the protagonist. The Republic, is one of the
greatest platonic dialogue and its argument is the search of Justice.
His purpose was to discover what is to be just and what is to be unjust.
To this end The Republic is divided in several books and several other
philosophical ideas are discussed. For instance on the book VII we can
read the Myth of the Cave, where Plato expresses his theory of
knowledge. In the following paragraphs he describes how far our nature
is enlightened or unenlightened:
"(...) There are human beings which have been in a den from their
childhood. This den has a mouth open towards the light and reaching all
along the den. They have their legs and necks chained, so they can see
only before them. There is a fire above and behind them and between the
fire and them there is a raised way. Along this way, there is a wall.
Along the wall, other people pass speaking or in silence carrying sort
of figures and statues. But, the chained prisoners can only see the
people’s shadows which they believe to be realities.
If one of these prisoners was liberated and forced to look towards the
light, he would suffer sharp pains and he would want to return. But
again, if someone forces him to walk the rugged ascent, he would reach
the sunlight. At first, his eyes could not distinguish anything, but
then he could see the shadows and then images reflected in the water.
Later he would be able to see the objects, the heaven, the stars and the
sun. He would believe the sun is the cause of all things in the world.
Then, he will remember his old habitation and will feel pity for his
fellow-prisoners.
Supposing, he would return to the cave, it would take him a long time to
get accustom to darkness, so his mates would think he has lost his sight
when he went up. Therefore, they would believe it would be better not to
ascend. If somebody would try to liberate them and show them the light,
they even could kill this person.
The cavern is the visible world, the fire is the true, and the liberated
prisoner is the soul who ascends to the intelligible world. As, in the
visible world, the sun is the creator and provider of the light, in the
edges of the intelligible world, the idea of good exists, but it is
perceived with difficulty. At the end it is recognised as the cause of
all those which are right and good.
Whereas, our argument shows that the power and capacity of learning
exists in the soul already; and that just as the eye was unable to turn
from darkness to light without the whole body, so too the instrument of
knowledge can only by the movement of the whole soul be turned from the
world of becoming into that of being, and learn by degrees to endure the
sight of being, and the brightest and best of being, or in other words,
of the good(…)
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Pythagoras's quotations: - These things are to be avoided by
every means, eradicated by fire or iron or any other means:
disease from the body, ignorance from the soul, luxury from the
belly, faction from the city, division from the household,
excess from everything. |
We have nothing of Pythagoras's writings. We do have details of
Pythagoras's life from early biographies and because of his great impact
on his era and the future, we have many references about him in the
books of ancient philosophers who lived after him such as Plato,
Aristotle… Two main sources about him are; Iamblichus, Life of
Pythagoras, Porphyry, Life of Pythogoras.
The two philosophers who were to influence Pythagoras, and to introduce
him to mathematical ideas, were Thales and his pupil Anaximander who
both lived on Miletus. It is said that Pythagoras visited Thales in
Miletus when he was between 18 and 20 years old. By this time Thales was
an old man and, although he created a strong impression on Pythagoras,
he probably did not teach him a great deal. However he did contribute to
Pythagoras's interest in mathematics and astronomy, and advised him to
travel to Egypt to learn more of these subjects.
In about 535 BC Pythagoras went to Egypt where he was accepted into the
priesthood after completing the rites necessary for admission.
Pythagoras made a journey to Babylon and India. It’s also interesting
that this great philosopher was known among the Indian sages in that
era.
Pythagoras founded a philosophical and religious school in Croton (now
Crotone, on the east of the heel of southern Italy) that had many
followers. Pythagoras was the head of the society with an inner circle
of followers known as mathematikoi. The outer circle of the Society were
known as the akousmatics and they lived in their own houses, only coming
to the Society during the day.
It’s also said that Pythagoras was the first person who used the word
Philosopher. People were calling him as wise man but he didn’t like this
and said that he was just a lover of Sophia (wisdom) that is
Philosopher.
Pythagoras himself discovered the numerical ratios which determine the
concordant intervals of the musical scale. Similar to musical intervals,
in medicine there are opposites, such as the hot and the cold, the wet
and the dry, and it is the business of the physician to produce a proper
'blend' of these in the human body. He also talked about heliocentric
system.
Here are some sayings from Pythagoras;
• He said that people approach life like the crowds that gather at a
festival. People come from all around, for different reasons: one is
eager to sell his wares and make a profit, another to win fame by
displaying his physical strength; and there is a third kind, the best
sort of freeman who came to see places and fine craftsmanship and
excellence in action and words, such as are generally on display at
festivals. Some hanker after money and an easy life; some are in the
clutches of desire for power and of frantic competition for fame.
• He thought that the training of people begins with the senses, when we
see beautiful shapes and forms and hear beautiful rhythms and melodies.
So the first stage of his system of education was music: songs and
rhythms from which came healing of human temperaments and passions.
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Seneca's Quotations:
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Lucius
Annaeus Seneca was born in Corduba (present-day Córdoba), Spain, around
3 BCE. Early in life, Seneca went to Rome and there he was educated in
philosophy during the period known as Stoicism. There he earned the
reputation for being an excellent orator. In 31 AD he began his career
in law and politics. Seneca has been credited with influencing a period of
sound government during the first part of Nero's reign. In 62 AD he
retired from public life to devote himself to writing and philosophy.
His studies on the life and qualities of a wise stoic include books such
as: De beneficiis which examines the benefits of both
giver and receiver in an exchange, and De brevitate vitae, an
argument that humans have a long enough life span only if time is used
properly. Seneca's 124 essays entitled the Epistulae morales
address (Epistles) a number of moral problems. Dedicated to
his friend Lucilius Junior, these essays are considered among Seneca's
best philosophical works.
After his death (aprox 65 AD) his writings have influenced
writers. In the 16th
century, the century of Shakespeare, major scholars took up Seneca.
Erasmus, Lipsius, and Gronovius published "famous editions" of Seneca's
Essays (Essays 1.xv). Lipsius devoted a whole book to the
points of agreement between Senecan Stoicism and the teachings of
Christ. Montaigne, who in his own time was known as the "French Seneca",
greatly admired Seneca and copied his informal essay style from the Epistles.
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Socrates
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Socrates Quotations:
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Socrates is the most interesting and influential philosopher of Ancient Greek. He taught many people in the streets of Athens and didn’t leave any book to us. We know him by different sources, mostly by Plato who was one of his disciples. Socrates was charged with corrupting the young people and sentenced to death by the Athenian government.
His aim of life was made clear in this saying; “I have never stopped investigating and learning any good thing I could.” He always discussed human matters, trying to find out the nature of piety and impiety, honour and dishonour, right and wrong, sanity and lunacy, courage and cowardice, State and statesman, government and the ability to govern. He believed that knowledge on these matters would define truly good men and ignorance of these would lead to slavery.
And who were Socrates companions? Many Athenians, who have made
virtue their goal, chose to associate with him rather than anyone else.
Chaerephon (one of Socrates followers) once made an inquiry about
Socrates in Delphi. Apollo replied - and there were many witnesses -
that Socrates was the most free, wisest, upright and prudent of all
people. When Socrates heard this, he started to search for a man wiser
than him to disapprove this oracle but he wasn’t able to. Every time
Socrates exposed his thoughts he realised that the people he discussed
with were more ignorant than him.
He was the most self-disciplined man in all respects of hardships, being
capable of withstanding very cold and hot weathers, as well as
refraining his sexual desires and other appetites. He had trained
himself so well to be moderate in his requirements that he was easily
satisfied with very few possessions. It makes sense then, to question
ourselves about the crimes Socrates was held against.
How could a man like this have leaded other people to travel the path of criminality, greed, sensual worship or laziness? Socrates was excellent at setting people on the road of goodness, not the other way round. He was against the identification of happiness with luxury and extravagance because he understood these things don’t add to goodness but instead they destroy goodness.
Socrates constantly opposed the sophists of his time. These sophists were people living in the greatest and most dangerous type of ignorance for they didn’t really know but just believed that they knew.
Socrates accusers focused their hostility on his critics about the Statesmen because the politicians of that age had the annoyance of having their mistakes exposed by Socrates. His accusers were; Critias who was the most avaricious and violent of all the oligarchs and Alcibiades who was the most dissolute and arrogant of all the democrats.
About the relation between hardship and goodness Socrates reminded
people of the saying of Hesiodos;
Evil can be easily found and freely
Smooth is the road and very near she dwells.
But sweat the gods have set upon the way
To goodness: long and steep is the path to it
And rough at first, but if you reach the summit
Thereafter it is easy, hard though it was.
When the time to drink hemlock came, he continued teaching; “The hour
of departure has arrived, and we go our ways--I to die and you to live.
Which is the better, only God knows...”
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